Wednesday, July 31, 2019
Prisoner Abuse Essay
Introduction Prisoner Abuse is one of the biggest problems faced by the society. It is one serious problem in many countries worldwide. There are many kinds of abuse experienced by incarcerated men and women, with sexual abuse being the most serious case since the perpetrators is not only fellow inmates but jail guards and prison staff also. Overpopulation is also one form of abuse since the needs of the prisoners are not properly given due to the scarcity of resources brought about by huge population. Drugs and drug abuse are is still prevalent in the prison world. Drugs have been noted to have a detrimental effect to prisoners the impact which may last for a lifetime. These kinds of abuse should be given due punishments because the convicts, no matter how serious their crimes are, still deserve to receive treatment that is rightfully accorded to a human being. More and more inmates are stepping inside jails every year. Majority of them experience extreme abuse that even leads to death of some unfortunate inmates. It is saddening that these experiences of prisoners are hindered by many factors. They cannot demand for justice because their behaviors and emotions are controlled by authorities over them. There are also times when their complaints are not acknowledged since they are already imprisoned due to heavy crimes. This problem however needs to be solved since the effect of the abuse is not only physical; it also affects the sociological and psychological aspect of human beings. However, prisoner abuse is an unfortunate phenomenon that can still be prevented and controlled. Everyone is entitled to fight for his or her human rights. This also includes even the prisoners who are convicted with a crime, and they should not be denied of these rights. Defining Prisoner Abuse Prisoner abuse happens to incarcerated men and women through mistreatments. Incarcerated individuals suffer twice the punishment given to them because of abusive jail guards, jail employees, and co-prisoners. One of the ways in which inmates suffer abuse is through torture. As cited in the Human Rights website, torture in prison is defined as: any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a person for such purposes as obtaining from him or a third person information or a confession, punishing him for an act he or a third person has committed or is suspected of having committed, or intimidating or coercing him or a third person, or for any reason based on discrimination of any kind, when such pain or suffering is inflicted by or at the instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence of a public official or other person acting in an official capacity (Fathi, 2008). Violence among prisoners by fellow prisoners or jail guards and employees is also rampant. It is a great problem that should be addressed immediately. Prisoners of all cultures, races, ages, and social status experience abuse at some points of their lives in prison. The socioeconomic status and cultural background have a significant influence in the impact of prison violence. Poor prisoners are more likely to experience abuse because they cannot afford to hire attorneys to defend the kind of life they have in prison. Those who are not natives of one country are inclined to have hesitation when calling out for help because they are not speaking in that country’s language (Richie, 2000). Forms of Prison Abuse Prisoner abuse comes in various forms, all of which cause harmful effects to male and female inmates. It comes in the form of physical, psychological, sexual and verbal. Physical Abuse Physically, the prisoners are abused through hitting and continuous beating. Physical abuse may also manifest as forced work assigned to the victims which is not a part of their punishment when they are convicted. This also includes depriving them of their basic needs such as food and clothing by cruel jail employees. The growing population of corrections may also be considered as form of physical abuse. Due to the large population that results in scarcity of resources, the prisoners do not receive an adequate amount of their basic needs (Idaho Observer, 2006). One of the most controversial and disturbing issues regarding prisoner abuse is the ultimately degrading treatment of Iraqi prisoners in Abu Ghraib in Iraq by American soldiers. A report made by Higham and Stephens (2004) at the Washington Post narrates how the Iraqi detainees were physically violated: Previously secret sworn statements by detainees at the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq           describe in raw detail abuse that goes well beyond what has been made public, adding         allegations of prisoners being ridden like animals, sexually fondled by female soldiers      and forced to retrieve their food from toilets (Higham & Stephens, 2004). Many of the prisoners who experience physical abuse, particularly those in the Abu Ghraib, are treated like animals. Prisoners are also out of touch with the real world. Their socialization is hindered by many factors. They do not have the capacity to fight back since they are already convicted for the crimes that they made. Other cases of physical abuse go as far as the prisoner’s death. Verbal Abuse There are also instances of verbal abuse to prisoners. They are called imbecile, idiot, moron, and other nasty words by jail guards in order to humiliate them (Higham & Stephens, 2004). Higham and Stephens (2004) add that â€Å"some of the detainees described are being abused as punishment or discipline after they were caught fighting or with a prohibited item†(Higham & Stephens, 2004). According to the Idaho Observer (2006), the guards tend to think that the inmates always do something wrong. One of the guards admitted that if they catch the prisoners’ lips moving, they assume that the latter are not telling the truth (Idaho Observer, 2006). Words that are usually thrown by jail guards to inmates are often harsh and hard to take. These words are more discriminating and humiliating. There are also instances when prisoners who commit mistakes in front of their fellow prisoners are being shouted at by jail guards and employees. These are really improper ways of treating prisoners because it damages their self-esteem and has bad effect on their mentality (Higham & Stephens, 2004). Psychological Abuse            Discipline is far different from torture. However, some jail authorities resort to using psychological abuse and mask it as a method of discipline for prisoners. This happens to prisoners by means of taunting, white noise, and not allowing them to sleep. Such cases of psychological abuse may lead to mental disorders. There are also threats given out to prisoners which cause paranoia and mental and emotional torture. Drug usage in prison may also lead to psychological disorders (Idaho Observer, 2006). One good example of psychological abuse in prison is cited in the May 2006 Idaho Observer report. The said report states that the abuse in the prison may manifest subtly. Instead of inflicting physical harm on prisoners, they are being abused by toying with them psychologically and emotionally. For instance, the jail employees leave the lights on for 17-and-a-half hours straight (4:30 in the morning to 10 in the evening). The guards also disturb the prisoner’s sleep by pointing the flashlights on the latter’s faces every 60 minutes or so, slamming the doors, and speaking loudly (Idaho Observer, 2006). Obviously, lack of sleep will cause one’s mind not to function properly. This kind of maltreatment in prisons is still rampant until today. Sexual Abuse The most popular abuse among prisoners is sexual abuse. There are many cases of forced sexual intercourse inside corrections. This abuse leads to diseases like AIDS and HIV. Sexual abuse is done by forcing prisoners to have sexual encounter with jail guards, jail employees and even their co-inmates. Sexual abuse is not only limited to prison guards and employees. It also occurs inside jail bars, the co-inmate being the perpetrator. Male to male sexual encounter occurs because they don’t have any choice but to satisfy their sexual needs by abusing their fellow male inmates. On the case of female prisoners who were sexually abused, lack of power hinders them to report the incident. There are times when sexual abuse to female prisoners occurs with the consent of the victim. However, this is still a violation of the law (Idaho Observer, 2006). Types of Prison Abuse Cases of maltreatment and mistreatment inside corrections take place when jail guards, any prison employee, or co-prisoner does something inappropriate to other prisoners. It comes in many abusive forms depending on the type. Although something bad is done by the inmate it is still improper to treat them like animals. It is still a case of abuse of power by jail personnel and a violation of human rights. Drugs in Prison Using illegal drugs, drug trafficking and other drug related cases cause individuals to be imprisoned. To end the promulgation of drugs, the drug pushers are detained in jails. However, the issue on drugs does not end here. Some correctional tolerate the use of drugs among prisoners. Others are forced to use it while those who are already users before entering the bars continue to use it. Addiction among inmates of the prohibited drugs is also attributed to stress that they experience in such environment (Uchtenhagen, 2007). Because of drugs being trafficked in jails, inmates who used to use drugs mildly prior to being imprisoned may become highly addicted to drugs. On the other hand, those who do not have any history of drug use may turn out to be drug users as their method of coping with stress and depression (Managing Drugs in Prison, 2007). Source of prohibited drugs are jail employees, jail guards, and those inmates who still have contacts on drug suppliers outside. Other causes of drug abuse inside prison are related to other types of abuse. When one prisoner is abused sexually, he/she is bribed by things like drugs to avoid complaining about the incident. Those prisoners who are users of drugs being incarcerated are blackmailed by using the victim’s personal cravings to drugs to get their consent and agree to be molested. Those prisoners who are weak are being bullied and forced to use drugs by those who are superior inside their cells (Managing Drugs in Prison, 2007). The effects of drug abuse to prisoners are really pervasive. They cannot act and think normally because of substance abuse. Their relationship with each other is also affected as well as their relatives outside the prison environment (Managing Drugs in Prison, 2007). Overpopulation in Prison Every year, more and more people are being incarcerated because of many reasons. Some are guilty of their crimes while others are victims of injustice. The increase in the number of prisoners equates to greater demands for resources and space inside the prison vicinity. However, the inmates are being abused by corrupt prison personnel who ask help from the government to aid the scarcity of prison resources like food, beds and others. In some cases, normal and mentally ill prisoners are combined in one place which makes the situation worse. Prisons which are overcrowded are, more often than not, unsafe as they warn of a riot erupting any time (Idaho Observer, 2006). One of the reasons for prison overcrowding is the incarceration of pregnant women. Women who are giving birth in prisons also increase at the same time. The problem here is not only the condition of the female prisoner but the condition of the infant being born in that kind of environment. The problem arises before and during the delivery since medical support is also inaccessible inside prisons. Sexual Abuse in Prison In some cases of sexual abuse in prison, bribery is included to avoid reporting the bad incident made to prisoners. Those who were abused are given cigarettes, drugs, clothing, access to telephone and other prison privileges in replace of sexual encounters. Offering goods to prisoners makes the sexual abuse possible because prisoners crave things that they only experience outside. Food and drugs are commonly used to perpetrate the abuse. Threats is also involved when forced sexually abuse is done. However, sexual abuse perpetrated by female inmates does not fall in the context of rape. This is because there is no force used to perform the abuse. â€Å"Girls are often framed by probation officers as being overemotional and needy†(Gaarder et al., 2005, p. 578). Male rape is a common thing inside prisons, but as for female prisoners, the enemy is not their fellow prisoners but much worse. They are the male prison guards and correctional staff. Female prisoners who are sexually coerced by jail guards give in because of fear. Sexual abuse is also used in most prisons to cover up more serious problems like drug addiction and carrying of deadly weapons behind bars. There are also cases when sexual abuse serves as the key to escape from jail. Correctional employees assist the escape of female prisoners with whom they have sexual involvement (Human Rights Watch 1996). The problem of sexual abuse among women prisoners is much worse precisely because of their sheer number. Research shows that the United States has earned the distinction of incarcerating the most number of prisoners. Most of these prisoners are women and their number is increasing dramatically at a fast rate. According to studies, since 1980, the number of women entering U.S. prisons has been raised to almost 400%, which is roughly double the incarceration rate increase of males. According to current statistics, nearly â€Å"half of all female prisoners have experienced some form of sexual abuse prior to incarceration†(Human Rights Watch 1996).            The most common sexual abuse in prison always incorporates violence in it. In a report made by the Department of Justice in 2004, there are 8,210 allegations of sexual violence according to correctional authorities, â€Å"the equivalent of 3.2 allegations per 1,000 inmates and youths incarcerated in 2004†(Department of Justice 2005). When violence is mixed with sexual abuse, it is really damaging on the part of the victim. There are physical disabilities that may occur, including broken bones and joints, skin injuries, and many more. The worst cases of prison rape lead to the death of prisoners.            Rape cases also happen to male prisoners. There are male prison guards and correctional staffs that take advantage of the authoritative power and force male prisoners to have sex intercourse with them. Then they disguise their revolting act, by pretending as protectors of the prisoners. It often involves group of prisoners in order to scare the target prisoner to be raped. It is a setup made by having group of prisoners bully the victim and threatening him with body harm. At the point that they will hurt the victim, the so-called â€Å"protector†will try to defend the victim and scare the groups away. In order to repay the savior (a jail guard, a jail staff or a co-inmate), the inmate will be asked to do favors and be repaid sexually. Causes of Prison Abuse            Abuse of power is the main reason why there is such thing as prison abuse. Those who are in authority take advantage of their power and demands many things from others. Such dominance causes abuse and torture to poor convicted criminals trapped behind bars. The lack of courage to speak for the truth and shout for justice is also a reason why the abuse is done over and over to prisoners. Cases of sexual abuse are included in this example and cited in the Human Rights Watch website. These are the words of a male prisoner who was raped inside the institution. As he recalls: â€Å"I’ve been sentenced for a D.U.I. offense. My 3rd one. When I first came to prison, I had no idea what to expect. I’m a tall white male, who unfortunately has a small amount of feminine characteristics. And very shy. These characteristics have got me raped so many times I have no more feelings physically. I have been raped by up to 5 black men and two white men at a time. I’ve had knifes at my head and throat†¦There is no supervision after lockdown†(Human Rights Watch 2006),            When a prisoner looks appealing among the rest, there is a great chance of being molested by prison guards. Some prisoners use their charms to have access to other things like phone calls and extra food during meal times (Human Rights Watch 2006). Effects of Prisoner Abuse            The effects of prisoner abuse can last a lifetime. The trauma and depression can be inculcated in the minds of prisoners who were physically, psychologically, verbally and sexually abused and leave them scarred permanently.            Those who were brutally abused through physical means have traces of scars and bone injuries that cannot be treated anymore. There are also cases of physical abuse when one inmate is forced to have a tattoo by their fellow inmates. The denial stage comes in when they are visited by their relatives and ask what happened to them. They will try to hide the fact that they are abused by people who should have looked after them and just discipline them instead of giving them torture. Most prisoners are afraid of telling the truth because harder punishments will be given to them by their perpetrators (Men in Prison, 2008).            Mental illnesses are also developed as years go by inside prisons. This is because the wide spread of drug abuse is rampant. It is obviously known that prohibited drugs cause malfunction in the brain. Other diseases like STDs (Sexually Transmitted Disease) and AIDS are attributed to sexual abuse inside prisons. This is the reality in the prison system which has been institutionalized in the societyâ€â€a kind of system that contributes to the perpetuation of violence inside prisons (Men in Prison, 2008).            Prisoner abuse also has sociological effects on the prisoner. The traumatic experience causes fear and trauma that will make him separate himself from everyone. The issue of women inmates giving birth to their child is also included because of prisoner abuse. The child is automatically separated from the mother once born inside the prison. In effect, the child may grow up without the necessary care and attention which is expected to be given by the biological mother. There are even cases of pregnant prisoners who are raped by prison guards. Such sexual abuse is really unbearable for the victim and their families. It does not only impact the prisoners but the institution as a whole. The reason why they are incarcerated is for them to be disciplined and not to be tortured and abused (Acoca & Austin, 1996). Sexual abuse makes the institution not credible in disciplining the prisoners. Instead, they themselves should be incarcerated as well.            When prisoners experience abuse, the effects can last a life time. The nightmare will forever haunt them and may lead to mental incapacitation or death at the worst. Those who experience sexual abuse and accumulate diseases find themselves committing suicide than suffer the illness daily. On cases of female prisoners who are raped, there is greater possibility of being pregnant. Being mentally ill is also an additional risk of being sexually abused (Acoca & Austin, 1996). Rights of Prisoners            Although a person is found guilty of a crime, there is still no reason for him/her to be abused inside prisons. There are several studies showing various changes regarding situations of prisoners. Most of the said report involve abuse without due punishment given to the perpetrators. Everyone has the right to seek for justice even if you are already set behind the bars. Inmates do not deserve any kind of abuse inside the correctional. They are placed there to be rehabilitated and disciplined, not to be punished twice for their misdeed.            According to the report made by the Justice Department’s Bureau of Justice, prison population in the United States has grown to 2 million inmates (Longley, 2007). The said research also shows that the escalating number of inmates heightens the problem of sexual abuse while incarcerated. Such demands about this problem should no longer be ignored; preventive measures need be done eradicate this problem.            The rights of prisoners as cited in the Human Rights Website (2008) are based from the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) in 1992. These rights address the following: (1) All persons deprived of their liberty shall be treated with humanity and with respect for the inherent dignity of the human person. (2)The penitentiary system shall comprise treatment of prisoners the essential aim of which shall be their reformation and social rehabilitation (Fathi, 2008). ICCPR also guarantees prisoner who were abused that there are remedies at hand to counter such violation of their human rights. The said covenant includes the following: (a) To ensure that any person whose rights or freedoms as herein recognized are violated shall have an effective remedy, notwithstanding that the violation has been committed by persons acting in an official capacity; (b) To ensure that any person claiming such a remedy shall have his right thereto determined by competent judicial, administrative or legislative authorities, or by any other competent authority provided for by the legal system of the State, and to develop the possibilities of judicial remedy; (c) To ensure that the competent authorities shall enforce such remedies when granted (ICCPR, Art. 2, sec. 3, as cited in Fathi, 2008). Solutions to Prison Abuse            Aside from the rights and privileges mentioned above, there are a variety of solutions to end this abuse among prisoners. There are organizations and government groups that help victims of prison abuse. There are also preventive measures that can be followed so as to stop the occurrence of any kind of abuse. People against prisoner abuse are comprised of individuals who seek for justice for those abused prisoners. One of the organizations that have been fighting for inmate rights is the People Against Prison Abuse, organization established in 1994 to help inmates and their family. The said organization aims to assist the families and friends who are currently imprisoned (People Against Prison Abuse, 2008). It attempts to address the following concerns: The tax being paid by taxpayers over the past several years are said to be spent more on prison inmates than public education but it is not visibly seen. The medical care of inmates Overcrowding is always ignored which should not become a norm. Mentally ill prisoners are not properly taken care of and are often abused by guards because they are not trained on how to deal with such conditions. The physically challenged inmates do not have the medical care, equipment, and/or facilities to enable them to be a functional human inside the prison system (6)The vast number of industrial prison complex staff (wardens, guards, and medical staff) commit worse crimes than majority of inmates so they should be punished. (People Against Prison Abuse, 2008). The aforementioned concerns are few of the many appeals of people who want justice for prison abuse. It is also important to support organizations like this to make all people aware and to convince the government to â€Å"investigate conditions within our prisons and to pass legislation to protect prisoners from abuse†(Stop Prison Abuse, 2008). Conclusion It is saddening to note that the judicial system which is supposed to protect the oppressed likewise offers no solution to this problem as it would consider this problem as an internal matter and would rather allow prison officials to handle this matter amongst themselves. The indifferent attitude of the correctional officials to one inmate raping another is likewise depressing. It renders much harmful effects on the condition of the prisoner and the credibility of justice. Prisoner abuse is indeed a pervasive in penal institutions. This problem however is preventable and controllable if preventive measures will be enacted and the government will responsibly address the issue. The response need not be limited to their strict punishment as avoidance measures may be instituted as a matter of prison policy. â€Å"The governments often have limited resources on giving the right prosecution process for victims and offenders†(Hoffman, 1993, p. 1552). Prisoner abuse should be given immediate action so that it will never happen again. Abuse of authority should not be tolerated. This is a serious problem needed to be solved immediately. Not only because the victim is already convicted, but because the victim is a human. Every human being has indelible rights. Conviction for a crime no matter how heinous it is will not strip him or her of these rights. References: Acoca, L. & James, A. (1996).The Crisis: Women In Prison. Draft report submitted to the Charles E. Culpepper Foundation. San Francisco, CA: National Council on Crime and Delinquency. Hoffman, Paul (1993). The Feds, Lies and Videotape: The Need for an Effective Federal         Role in Controlling Police Abuse in Urban America. Southern California Law    Review, 66, 1522. Higham, S. & Stephens J. (2004). New Details of Prison Abuse Emerge. The Washington Post. Retrieved April 30, 2008 from: http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A43783-2004May20?language=printer Human Rights Watch. (1996). All Too Familiar: Sexual Abuse of Women in State Prisons. Retrieved April 30, 2008 from: http://hrw.org/reports/1996/Us1.htm Human Rights Watch. (2006). No Escape Male Rape in US Prisons. Retrieved April 30, 2008 from:http://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/prison/report.html#_1_2 Idaho Observer. (2008). Seven Years Abuse in Idaho Prison. Pro-Liberty Network. Retrieved April 30, 2008 from: http://proliberty.com/observer/20060520.htm It’s Not My Problem. (2008) Men Stuff Organization. Retrieved April 30, 2008 from:           http://www.menstuff.org/issues/byissue/jailhouserock.html Longley, R. (2007). U.S. Prison Population Tops 2 Million. About.com. Retrieved April 30, 2008 from: http://usgovinfo.about.com/cs/censusstatistic/a/aaprisonpop.htm People Against Prison Abuse. (2008). People Against Prison Abuse. Retrieved April 30, 2008 from:http://www.peopleagainstprisonabuse.com/page1.html Richie, Beth. (2000). Exploring the Link Between Violence Against Women and Women’s Involvement in Illegal Activity. U.S. Department of Justice. Research on Women and Girls in the Justice System. Stop Prison Abuse. (2008) Stop Prison Abuse. Retrieved April 30, 2008 from: http://stopprisonabuse.org/ Uchtenhagen, A. (2008). â€Å"Drug Prevention Outside and Inside Prison Walls.†Joomla!. Retrieved April 30, 2008 from: http://www.drugtext.org/library/articles/97817.htm
Tuesday, July 30, 2019
Modern family values
Family dynamics have rapidly been changing and evolving over the last two hundred years, with far-reaching consequences on individuals and societies as a whole. Whereas before the industrial revolution, children used to live and work with their parents within the home to learn the family trade that would support them and future offspring, now parents spend a good majority of their days at work and children at school. Additionally, there is no longer a â€Å"normal†family model of two heterosexual spouses and their children to comprise the average home. As noted by economist Nancy Barret inDecline of the Family: Conservative, Liberal and Feminist Views, there is no longer one family model that is more dominant than another. (Giezle, Janet D. , 88) The opinions regarding the reasons for such familial shifts are as diverse as the many family models now present. While the opinions of the reasons for such changes in the family may differ, there is a consensus that such changes cor relate with the general upward trend of violence, anti-social behavior, divorce rates, teen pregnancies and addiction habits among parents and especially children.Conservatives argue that such negative behavior epresents a moral decline perpetuated by broken homes and poverty caused by young, unwed parents. They offer a return to traditional family standards and values as a solution to such problems. to such problems, a reversion to a traditional family model is not a viable solution for every family and, therefore, the solution lies in building up communal support for all family types by stressing the importance of families and deemphasizing the individual.Using these two perspectives put forth in Giezle's Decline of the Family, this paper will analyze a true narrative of my younger sister who, after failed marriage, attempted to raise a son, attend university and procure a Job after graduation. I have four siblings, and my sister, Beth, is the youngest. Our mother was a single mot her who supported her five children by, first, relying on government support through welfare and charities, until she was able to gain a Job working night shift for the post office. The Job offered long, exhausting hours but Just enough money that we no longer required government assistance.Though my mother was able to support us materially, she was still often stressed over money matters, running a household nd trying to meet the needs of her children. Our home environment was very stressful. Our mother needed to sleep during the day, so household responsibilities were left to us children. Though we were children, it was expected of us to grow up rather quickly, as we had to rely on and look after each other. Emotions were put aside in favor of getting by, paycheck to paycheck. By the time each of us became a teenager, it was expected that we would find a part-time Job to help cover some of our own expenses. lerical position, my brothers and I into the military, and Beth, surprisin gly, decided to elope with her oyfriend, who had also Joined the military. It was, as she has reflected on it, an act of desperation to escape a stressful home and the fear of no Job prospects and absolutely no way to fund a college education. Her husband was trained by the military in basic mechanical duties on military planes and they lived in Texas for a year before they expected their child. With his military contract up, they returned to the Pacific Northwest with the idea of him finding steady work to support their family.The work was hard to find. The mechanical skills her husband had acquired in the military did ot transfer to the civilian world. Temporary, part-time Jobs were not a reliable source of income to prepare for their child. My sister took up work in a restaurant right up until she gave birth in order to help with the finances. After she gave birth, the question of whether to return to work raised several issues. His income alone was not enough on which to live. T herefore, they needed a second income. However, they could not afford to hire a sitter to cover those work hours.Further, they were informed by the state that the additional income would raise them above assistance level for food and edical benefits. They were in a catch-22, so to speak. They needed to earn more money, but if they did, they would second income. The strain of money issues, raising a newborn, and the typical relationship problems that accompany young people and rash decisions, brought their marriage to an end when their son was Just one. My sister was in a very difficult position. She had a son to raise, but on no place to live, no college education, and very little work experience. She lived with me while she filed for state benefits.Over the course of eight months, she secured an apartment, enrolled in chool and began the work-study program there to earn a bit of money. However, the state assistance would only continue if she were in a vocational program at the comm unity college. The incomes of such vocations threatened to put her back in the same predicament she and her husband had been in†not enough to get by, but Just enough that the state could offer no assistance. She gave up the state assistance and her apartment to move back home with our mother, who agreed to baby-sit while my sister attended the University of Portland and worked on campus there.She still eceived medical insurance for her son, and a small stipend for food. After four years, she graduated and landed a Job that now supports her and her son. It would not have been remotely possible without the support of state programs, generous student grants and constant support from her family members. From a conservative's perspective, issues such as teen pregnancy, divorce and couples having children while being unable to support them are all marked signs that society has shifted from traditional family values.A conservative would argue that the moral declination of society is exemplified in the selfishness of individuals ho place little to no value on the family unity. Further, they argue that the cultural attitudes toward unwed parents and those on state assistance have become too tolerant, rewarding them with welfare assistance programs that do nothing but lower community standards and teach dependence instead of self-reliance. (Giezle, 77) Cons
Monday, July 29, 2019
Qualititive Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
Qualititive - Assignment Example The data in this case was gathered through interviews conducted at a local organization. The main intension is to re-engineer both the Business Take On and client billing process. The organization from which the data was gathered is within a situation in which the clients are under-billed and sometimes being billed incorrectly (Heath, 2014). This aspect has created a major problem within the organization. The problem is not only faced by the organization but also by the clients especially after being billed incorrectly (Heath, 2014; Kelly, 2014; Vincent, 2014). The data collected was solely qualitative. Qualitative data refers to statistical data that is non-quantifiable. Usually, the data collection techniques are those based on qualitative data collection (Cant, 1997; Creswell, 2003; Higgs, 1997; Loseke & Cahil, 2007). In this case, interviews were used to gather the data at the organization. The interview process was conducted with various individual and specifically the organization’s key personnel. These personnel involved the people representing various sub-units within the client organisation. The interview process was initiated with personnel like Lea Kelly who is the business development manager, Heath, and Vincent from the sales department of the organization. Six interviews were conducted with Vincent taking part in four of the interviews (Vincent, 2014). The interviews were conducted separately because different information was required for capturing. Recording the interviews was the primary was of obtaining the response s from the interviewees. For easy analysis, the recorded information was converted into interview transcripts. The interview transcripts allowed for easy coding (Mason, 2002). In this case, coding is critical for the analysis of the data (McRoy, 2014). The result of the interview process produced a number of themes, which need to be addressed if the organization has to solve the current problems. From the interview,
Sunday, July 28, 2019
The Past Present and Future of Technology Inventory Control Essay
The Past Present and Future of Technology Inventory Control - Essay Example Technology evolved to the second generation, which included electronic computers for scientific and numerical calculations. These computers were now convenient, reliable and could store much information. Standard packages emerged for inventory control applications, making it easy to sort, analyze, and process data. The result was reduction in prices of goods and services leading to increased transactions and hence demanding more efficient and faster equipment. The third generation was online network databases that enabled online transaction processing (Gray 4). This era enabled a person to run many concurrent transactions and many users shared one database. Many programs developed in this era are still useful today in inventory control (Chief Supply Chain Officer Insights 13). The fourth generation inventory control devices were relational databases that enabled data definition, data navigation, and data manipulation (Gray 5). It enabled the capturing of inputs and outputs of merchandise to the user device. The programs in this generation are convenient even in today’s life for client server computing. The devices that followed emerged in the year 1995 and were multimedia databases that still exist in today’s life (Gray 6). In complex objects, the database made it possible to search, compare, and manipulate the data. This database could store and retrieve information and it made inventory control easy by adding on time and time interval data types. In the present, computer hardware has enabled the evolution of inventory control from manual and paper based processing to information search engines. The inventory control devices used in the present include barcode scanners to read every barcode in every item, mobile computers to capture data like the batch numbers and the inventory software for tracking the inventory sales
Saturday, July 27, 2019
How systems and processes deployed within the organization are aligned Assignment
How systems and processes deployed within the organization are aligned with organizations objectives - Assignment Example This research aims to evaluate and present the analysis that is provided in the context of theories and practices in operations management at the workplace. Finally suggestions are provided on how the process can be managed better in order to attain organizational objectives. The key to the company’s business operation is the fact that it keeps changing itself with the ever changing world that it exists in. The company undertakes successful business process re-engineering which is objected to provide solutions to the three main factors in business, namely, customer, change and competition. BPR accounts for one of the main operations strategy of Walmart for achieving radical improvement in contemporary and critical measures of performances such quality, costs, services and speed. The strategy focuses on re-examining its basic roots and aiming to undertake complete reinvention. BPR activities have been particularly employed in Walmart for attaining scale of operations and reduci ng costs so as to attain a competitive edge in the market. Following is a typical BPR process undertaken in Walmart involving cross functional cooperation and changes, identifying expectations of customers and also identifying where the process is falling short of meeting those expectations. The supply chain operator in Walmart seeks to enhance efficiency to such a level such as to attain low price leadership among other retailers in the market. (Haag, Cummings & McCubbrey, 2004, p.101). Because of this high efficiency the company has been able to attain low margins as compared to other retailers. As commented by Pete Abell, the research director at AMR Research Inc. at Boston, cost of goods of Walmart is at least low by 5% to 10% from that of its competitors. The retail giant was effective in becoming the best supply chain operator of all times in terms of undertaking two fundamental strategies. Firstly, it has leveraged its scale in numerous ways for the creation of operational ef ficiencies consequently driving significant competitive advantage. Secondly, it has used its scale for creating competitive advantage through best execution and investment in supply chain (Dorado, 2006, p.1). Globally the retailer has around 9000 number of suppliers which includes Nestle, P&G, Unilever and even Kraft. The company also exercises tremendous power and control over its suppliers. For negotiating with suppliers Walmart
Friday, July 26, 2019
Analyze Lucy in Disgrace by comparing her to Lucy in William Research Paper
Analyze Lucy in Disgrace by comparing her to Lucy in William Wordsworth's The Lucy Poems. Explain at least three signi - Research Paper Example The work also dwells on themes of violence and exploitation and the indelible and tormenting lacerations they leave on the victims as well as the perpetrators. David, a professor, teaching communication in a technical university in South Africa, makes sexual advances on a vulnerable female student. He refuses to apologize and is sacked by the college authorities and he comes to his daughter Lucy’s farm to live with her. As he begins to adapt to the farming life, a gang of three black men launch an attack on the farm, beats him up and rapes his daughter. Ironically, the same callous treatment that he metes out on the women in his life rebounds on his daughter and he remains helpless, unable even to protect his daughter’s honor. The story, through the depiction of the lead character Lucy, thus portrays women as hapless subjects of male prowess and domination, which reduce them to the status of emotional wrecks. On the other hand, â€Å"Lucy,†a set of five poems wr itten by Wordsworth, an acclaimed English poet, tells the story of an unrequited love of an anonymous narrator for Lucy, an anonymous and undefined character. Contrary to the Lucy in the novel, the poems view Lucy in an entirely different perspective by objectifying her as a symbol of beauty and innocence. She represents the deep yearning and longing of the young male narrator’s unquenched heart. ... On the other hand, in â€Å"Disgrace,†Coetzee clearly provides the idea as to who Lucy is, what her conflict is and how she perceives herself as a part of the South African society and the perspectives from which that society will view her problem. Similarly, in the novel, the audience gets to know Lucy and her feelings from her perspective, through her actions and dialogs, which renders it a certain form of emotional intensity to the character. On the other hand, in Lucy poems, the audience never sees or hears Lucy in person. Whatever information the author chooses to share with the readers derives from the narrator’s perspective and the perception that this anonymous person conceives and reveals about her. Thus, the author wraps his female character in a shroud of mystery and alludes to her traits by way of using distinct and vivid imageries but ambiguous attributes to her existence such as every day she looked â€Å"Fresh as a rose in June†and the narrator l amenting, â€Å"O mercy!†on the event that she is dead (Wordsworth Poem I Lines 6, 27). From these allusions, the audience is not able to make out whether Lucy is a person who actually has lived and died, or whether she just symbolizes some aspect of nature. In contrast, Coetzee’s Lucy comes alive on the pages through the straightforward narration of the stark realities of her existence and the depiction of her vivid emotions as can be evidenced from her denial of her father’s offer to send her to Holland saying that â€Å"There is nothing you can suggest that I haven’t been through a hundred times†(Coetzee 157). This dialog illustrates the emotional trauma of the character and the conflict she undergoes, through her own narration of it.
The Case for the Metropolitan Insurance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
The Case for the Metropolitan Insurance - Essay Example But what good is the image when it is not properly stored Documentum serves as the file cabinet where the documents and images are arranged and stored. The introduction of the document imaging system and the establishing of the database Documentum has provided opportunities in to cut down costs in aspects of the business' operations. They are enumerated and discusses as follows: documents coming in everyday. One can just imagine the volume of storage space occupied by the microfiche images and equipment. File Cabinets, indexing materials and rooms must be provided for the storage of the images. Since microfiche images are not considered as "legal archives", there is really a need to provide storage and indexing mechanism for the paper documents. File folders, envelopes, cabinets, rooms and indexing materials represent a rather large cost to the business. Added to this is the labor cost associated with the people employed to attend and safeguard the documents and images. The Imaging system eliminated the need for microfiche images and paper document storage. Because of this, there is no more need to purchase filing and indexing materials. Provision for storage space such as rooms is no longer necessary. Furthermore, the pre-existing materials and rooms can be sold or used in other business works. ... Added to this is the labor cost associated with the people employed to attend and safeguard the documents and images. The Imaging system eliminated the need for microfiche images and paper document storage. Because of this, there is no more need to purchase filing and indexing materials. Provision for storage space such as rooms is no longer necessary. Furthermore, the pre-existing materials and rooms can be sold or used in other business works. The Metropolitan can also cut down labor costs as the system does not require many filing personnel. b. Maintenance Costs Paper documents and microfiche images can be corroded by environmental elements thereby reducing it to a useless material. This problem becomes more important since the insurance business operates in a very wide time frame. This temporal criterion makes it imperative that the documents are properly maintained. Furthermore, insects or animals may reside in the file cabinets and consume/ruin records. There is a need to purchase chemicals to prevent corrosion and animal destruction. Maintenance personnel must also be properly trained for them to be able to protect the documents. All of these represent a large capital cost for Metropolitan. Since the document's images are stored in the computerized database and since this is considered "legal archives", the paper documents need not be thoroughly taken cared of. Environmental and animal concerns are also eliminated. These improvements lessen the need for chemicals and maintenance personnel. 3B. Explain how the System shortens cycle time. The system also shortened cycle time because it eliminated the need for manual imaging of the pertinent documents. It can even image
Thursday, July 25, 2019
Review of asian art performance Movie Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words
Of asian art performance - Movie Review Example Immediately the background vocalists finish singing BhÄ «ma comes and starts destroying the kadili groves. BhÄ «ma finally see Hanuman lying on the way. BhÄ «ma starts wondering who was blocking his way. To BhÄ «ma the person lying on the way looks like an old monkey.BhÄ «matries all he can,including threatening Hanuman but he is eventually unable to get Hanuman out of his way. This performance makes good use of dramaturgy and dance. This is a common characteristic of Indian classical dance forms. It can be seen that in most parts of the performance.The performers make good use of dancing and acting to bring forward the message that intended. It is only during the few occasions that the background singers can be heard coming into the performance with songs that are aimed at giving more details to the performance (Vatsyayan 78). It is through dancing and acting that you can actually get to know that Hanuman tries to imitate an old monkey and that that BhÄ «ma is highly offended by the fact that â€Å" an old fat monkey†lies on his way and refuses to heed to his orders despite that fact that he is royalty. The kind of performance seen in this video really show that the actors use physical stamina, skills, and concentration. It can also be noted that there is extensive use of finger gestures to communicate messages in this performance. Another notable thing about this performance is the choice of costume. Both actors receive different costumes so that their nature can be communicated. Hanuman wears a costume that is hairy at the arms so that there is the ease in associating him with a monkey. Another thing is that BhÄ «ma has attire that has been able to show his royalty.On his head he is wearing a crown and his gown has some golden accessories at the neck. These golden accessories can be said to have been purposely included in the costumes so that audience should be able to associate BhÄ «ma to affluence or royalty. Looking at the makeup used on both actors you
Wednesday, July 24, 2019
Project planning and control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words
Project planning and control - Essay Example Planning and control is constituted by four main activities that include scheduling, loading, sequencing and monitoring, and control. Whereas scheduling is about the timing of operations, loading involves the quantity of work to be done according to available capacity. Sequencing, in turn, involves the order in which the work is to be done (Johnston, Chambers and Slack, 2007). Consequently, monitoring and control involves ensuring that all the other components are going according to plan. Organizations are frequently involved with processes, movement of materials, finished goods and services that need proper planning and control. It is, therefore, important to any firm that wants to effectively perform and compete in today’s highly sophisticated operational business environment (Kerzner, 2009). To successfully coordinate all functions in line with an organization’s goals and objectives, management is increasingly being faced with the need for proper planning and control . Managers, therefore, need to properly understand the basic components of proper planning and analysis of projects. ... All these day-to-day activities of a project coordinator therefore need proper planning and control techniques, and hence my interest in this area. As a project coordinator, I therefore feel most aligned to the selected topic. Effects / Benefits Having pointed out my work as a project coordinator as the main reason for identifying the topic, it is important also to point out the effects or benefits it has on my personal objectives in line with my career. First is the issue of scheduling as discussed in the overview of the selected topic. My work as a project coordinator usually involves a lot of allocations and timing for various events, processes and individuals involved. A critical and comprehensive overview of the component that forms an important element of my daily operations is therefore of great benefit to my work as a project coordinator because it further equips me with the technical as well as the theoretical knowhow on the subject. The success of any project relies on prop er planning, and no project coordinator can ignore planning (Carmichael, 2006). Planning, in turn, depends on appropriate scheduling and control measures that have been put in place to ensure that it succeeds. Another area of project coordination is that of preventing risks associated with failures or uncertainties that are associated with unrecognized future drawbacks in the course of planning. Proper control measures learnt in this topic such as demand forecasting and push or pull control mechanisms will go a long way in ensuring that my work is based on an enlightened point of view rather than working towards a failure. Moreover, managing the staff for a
Tuesday, July 23, 2019
Chinese Economy Master Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words
Chinese Economy Master - Case Study Example Or is that true Chinese market for instance, has rolled out from the planned economy to a free market economy to a degree retaining its own planned model in the core of the change. At this level, the impact of the planned economy and the change that it has brought into China has been impressive1. This paper targets to present both the sides of the market economies. An analysis has been done at the end of presenting the pros and cons of both the free market as well as the planned economies. Planned economies have been the 'successful' economies of the yesteryears. The Russian, the Chinese economy before the changes in the economy all were adopting the centrally planned economy. This had typically, the people at the centre of the entire plan. Whether it is agriculture or the industry, the state was the centre of all action. Large scale investments were done by the state to ensure that the progress was continuous. Planned economies target was to bring parity among the communities and the individuals. The individuals yielded place to communities. The planning was for the communities and the individual was not considered for economical study. However, the individual formed the major part of their plan for the future. Education and the individual development was a part of the community target to ensure that the growth continued to exist. While there was a rap... The positive aspects of the plan were that there was an overall education to all the citizens of the community. Planned economies could forge large scale projects that could not otherwise be conceived. The same way, the state could embark on global scale projects that would reduce the cost of production and at the same time could contain the inflation rate in the country as well. Another major advantage is that the equality of the people in front of law was also realised. This made the entire process attractive to the common man. Fallout of Planned Economies Planned economies had the following shortcomings: 1. Over a period of time the entire process became very corrupt and could not maintain the commitment for community. 2. Planned economies had to think out all the possible factors that could bring about the changes in the economic status. The numbers of factors were so large that it is almost impossible to relate every one of them. This results in the failure of the plan and hence the commitment of the people in the work. 3. Planned economics were in existence in many of the countries. Both in the case of democracies like India and in the case of the left leaning governments in the case of China. In both the cases, the development anticipated was not obtained as in the case of market economy. Most of the countries therefore, are migrating to the market economy structure instead of staying with the planned economy. 4. Though they are moving to a market economy, many of them stay with a phased withdrawal of the planned economy. This has resulted in these countries, including China, having a market economy as well as partially planned economy which helps the country to consolidate and migrate to the new economic pattern without much
Monday, July 22, 2019
Compulsive Gambling Essay Example for Free
Compulsive Gambling Essay More than 5 million Americans are pathological, compulsive and problem gamblers, and another 15 million are at risk of becoming just like them. A common definition of problem gambling is: a progressive disorder characterized by a continuous or periodic loss of control over gambling and irrational thinking and behavior despite the consequences. When gambling interferes with any ones life, it can be categorize as an addiction or disease, just like alcohol and drug addiction is categorize as a disease. A study conducted for the National Gambling Impact Study Commission found that 20 million American have or could develop gambling problems. Also they have estimated those 1. 8 million American adults as well as up to 1. 1 million American adolescents age 12 through 17 engage in severe pathological gambling each year. As legalize gambling has become more common in the United States; problems have sprung up as well. That negative influence is becoming more apparent as gambling is more widely available. It is becoming increasingly easy to gamble in the United States particularly in the last 10 years, and problems with gambling are much more common now than they ever were. Studies show that for every dollar gambling produces for a regional economy, three dollars are lost because of the economic and social cost of gambling. The study has also said that if the government legalizes more gambling, taxpayers will lose money, whether they gamble or not. The gambling industry believes it is just selling an innocent form of family entertainment, but they dont mention how much the players lose or how gambling encourages addictive behavior or the enormous costs it creates for the rest of society. It has been said that, gamblers with higher counts of gambling symptoms will have higher rates of problem. There many consequences associated with compulsive, pathological and problem gamblers. Examples of such consequences include job and financial problems, divorce, poor health, and criminal involvement. These addictions are the lifeblood of the gambling industry, said an economist from the University of Illinois by name Earl Grinols. He researches and found out, that casinos earn more than half their revenues from compulsive, pathological, and problem gamblers. The casino industry is heavily dependent on the revenues of psychologically sick people, says Grinols. Millions of families are paying a heavy price, not just financially, but also strains in family and marital relationship. Family members of compulsive and pathological gamblers are hurt by their disease, mainly because an emotional withdrawal occurs, which leads to separation.
Sunday, July 21, 2019
Environmental Impact Assessment Report On Malaysian Airport Project Construction Essay
Environmental Impact Assessment Report On Malaysian Airport Project Construction Essay The first system to assess the environmental impact was developed by US in 1970, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has been used widely over the world and it has become the most crucial tools in implemented any projects or planning process. Until now, almost 55 countries have starting to use formal EIA system measurement, not only that about 100 countries have implement the EIA measures system (Haklay et al., 1998). Compared to other countries in this world, Malaysia has been the top countries to adapt with EIA. As a proof Malaysia has develop the Environmental Quality Act 1974 in Third Malaysia Plan, Department of Environment and an Environmental Quality Council has been setup to smooth the planning process in the national level. In Environment Quality Act 1984, section 34A extended the environment impact assessment legislation; however in 1986 the act amends that require assessment for all private and public projects which may be have high impact on the environment. Besides tha t, in 1998 EIA will be implemented as whole and made it mandatory to all the project to be implemented (Barroe, 1997). Environmental assessment report intended to assess the environmental impacts of airport project proposed by Janji Manis Corporation (JMC) to replace the new airport in Subang to Sepang, as what been stated in the JMC Development Plan to build an airport in the capital city of Malaysia in accordance to fulfil the needs of the globalization and demand of the market. Besides that, the current airport required to accommodate market demand for the airport with increasing numbers of consumers, thus new airport will be able to offers the demand of the users. However, according to the Department of Environment of Malaysia, any project to be implemented must get the approval from the department to ensure that the project would not be jeopardized the environment in airport project area. Besides that, the project also must include all formalities needed such as giving briefing session to the residence of the place involved, local councils, state authority, agencies and various environmental rel ated people. For example giving explanation to the society in Sepang where the airport project to be implemented. Besides that, there are several procedures need to be completed before the decision to allow the project to be implement. Among the procedures involve are, preliminary assessment, detailed assessment and review assessment report. Where preliminary assessment main objectives are to examine the project proposal and select the best project options which are available, secondly, identify and integrate into the project preparation to appropriate abatement and mitigating appropriate measures; and to identify important residual on the environmental impacts. Besides that, in second procedure in preparing detailed assessment done by describes the significant enduring environmental impacts that were predicted from the final project plan prepared; to specify the mitigating and the abatement measures needed in the final project preparation; and identify the costs on environment and the benefits can be obtain from the airport project to the local community involved in order for critically review the detailed assessment reports the steps needed are by evaluating the development and costs of the environmental and bene fits of the final project plan to the society; to formulate and recommending and guidelines to the project that been approved to the relevant authority so that the project can be implemented. In the other hand, EIA requires detail analysis because of probable effects to the environment from the airport project. EIAs require systematic analysis of the potential impacts, secondly the projects to be carried out with proposal of mitigation measures, thirdly, to get the detail economics valuation of the impact and suggesting the best alternative to be choose, and finally be able to prepare the environmental management plan. The Process in Preparing EIA Every EIA needs the Terms of Reference (TOR) which can be develop via scoping. The output expected through scoping are: Identify the probability impact on environment or other concerns on environment to be considered and also need to further investigate from EIA report. Identify components of the environment that need comprehensive study. Determine the correct method and approach that appropriate in order to carry out EIA study. Identify the specific interest that might be occur in consultation before the EIA been carry out. Identify the need appropriately in to EIA context especially before the project can be implemented. The next step of EIA analysis must follow the key important activities of the airport project: Describing Environmental Condition of the New Airport Project Area It is crucial to run the EIA study by examining the baseline information about the area biophysical, social and economic, and this will be the reference to the new airport project. Therefore, according to the proposal of new airport in Sepang provide the appropriate information on the geology of the place which mostly the land that plant palm. Furthermore, the land is suitable because its good structure of the soil. Thus such area offers good potential to build the new airport. The location between the new airport area and Subang (current) location is 55.6 kilometers to south of Malaysia, and is bounded by Nilai Highway, Lekas Highway and Federal Highway that connecting short distance and smooth way to new airport location. Furthermore, the new airport location has some native foliage, described as oil palm plantation, but most of the area is predominantly vacant. Previously the area was occupying Felda Corporation, however the land was beneficial for commercial and development thus it has been given the authority to JMC to build the new airport in that particular location. Besides that, until today there were no threatened of ecological was reported in that area by Department of Environment of Malaysia. However, in order to sustain the environment the new airport project will consider the preservation of environment, which predominantly by sustaining the rest of the land by palm plantation and the new airport will be build based on green technology and will also sustaining three main elements of sustainable, that is environment, economics and social. Besides that, the located area also accommodating the crop industry and the project will distract the habitat however it is believed that the habitat can be transferred to the nearest location near Tiroi and the area is believed having significant ability to place the habitat that need to be sustain. Furthermore, the new airport location is located far away from housing area and also satellite area and this will ensure that the location will not distract the residence or society in Sepang. Additionally, this project will be able to offer the local society of the economic development by offering jobs and transportation development with good system and condition of road and many aspects that might effects the local lifestyle or living opportunities. Environmental Impacts Associated with the New Airport Project Traffic The location of new airport is bounded by Federal Highway and surrounded by Jalan Utara and Jalan Semangat Bypass. The location can be access via Federal Highway using Nilai Exit, and all kind of vehicles, including semitrailers, commercial vehicles and flat trucks will bring the material of construction or the oil palm industries transportation. As an additional the nearest palm plantation company has some restriction to be obeyed, due to limited usage of Jalan Utara and Semangat including the bridge. Currently about 15,000 are vehicles using the road way along Jalan Utara and Jalan Semangat. Besides that, according to Average weekday traffic flow 2008/09 has found that the average total of traffic throughout the peak hour (7:15 am to 8:15am) was about 3,000 vehicles southbound, and 550 vehicles westbound. Furthermore, the common traffic surge for the noon peak hours (5:10 pm to 6:15pm) consists of about 590 vehicles southbound, and 790 vehicles westbound. Furthermore, JMC has indomitable that the new airport will raise the traffic about 2.2% (340 vehicles) of present daily of the traffic on weekdays. Jalan Utara is a three lane wideway. As a results JMC has organize discussions with the local authority for Malaysia Planning and Infrastructure (MPI) on the possibility of the street being upgraded to a four lane dual roadway in the medium to long term. The main challenge for JMC is when the public raised about the increased the problems of traffic in the area. Particularly they are concern about the threat on the safety of their children and neighbouring community, and how do Jalan Utara to absorb the extra vehicles come to their area roadway. In other hand, JMC has planned to use the airport site from Jalan Utara. Both Jalan Utara and Jalan Semangat can only maintain the semi-trucks, and the permits are obtained from the State Government of Negeri Embilan to permit Double-Big trucks on those particular roads. Jalan Utara also has a big bridge (Jalan Utarra Bridge) in excess of a gas produces which will need to be upgraded if Double-Big trucks are to access over the bridge. JMC has dedicated to face the cost involve to upgrade the bridge if required to do so. JMC has suggested three diverse traffic circumstances in the MDP. Situation 1 is to embark on with no development on the roads, and apply the semi-trailers for materials trans portation. Situation 2 is to obtain the necessary permits, and improve the bridge on Jalan Utara, to enable Double-Big trucks to enter the roads. Situation 3 is by obtaining permits for Double-Big trucks to enter Jalan Utara, however they need to take a route that not using the bridge. JMC of course prefers Situation 1 at this point. JMC also has taken for action the public worries in the MDP as follows: The major concern for the children is the western section of Jalan Utara. JMC plans to initiate truck drivers not to enter that part of road; All road installation will be obeyed to the endorsement with the relevant right, and the number of trips, transfer of services with any other issue will be integrated; and Raw materials of the projects will only be elated between 6:10am and 6:10pm. Around 10 truck (semi-trailers) travels are likely to be used during peak times. Services The new airport project will require JMC to upgrades the existing services that available, and also to supply the new services that necessary. The project area is located adjacent to an existing gas processing of Petronas, and also has access to the electricity area. JMC promises to upgrade the electricity and enhance the area power supply, and also to get access to the gas production so that they will meet the requirements of a airport construction. Area Sewage Treatment The project site is not getting serviced by sewer mains to the local, and JMC has plans to install a nutrient replace on-site treatment unit needed. Consultant for JMC has taken for action that: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The system firstly must be able to hold the quantity of waste generated, and may need local council authority and Health Department of Malaysia approval; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ A sewage disposal area would be needed to be recognized and would also need to be at least 36m from the nearest bay à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Sewage disposal by using irrigation would not be appropriate for location where the water table is located or too close to the ground surface system; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Blended soils may be needed under the irrigated location in environmentally sensitive location and to prevent nutrient discharge to the groundwater system. Disproportionate release of nutrients to the site could also result in blemish of waterways. JMC has not point up that issue in the MDP. Water The location needed a ring central part to carry town water to the place for fire-fighting. JMC explain that mostly the water used in construction will be sourced from surplus and irk water, and also depending on the available quality of the bore water system. Besides that, storm water drainage planned to be modified in order to collect run-off from the cemented and roof location and it again will then be transferred to a series of drainage place available. JMC suggest re-using most of this water for construction and dust control. Additionally, some of that used water may be spoiled with unwanted silt and clay, so JMC suggest lining the first setup water pond to prevent leakage. JMC also suggest working on an interceptor pit in to thee handle removal of any oil residues system, in the event if accidental spillage that might happen. Lighting In other hand the public concern was also point up about the lighting on the location impacting to the flora and fauna in the involve area, and residential areas nearby. JMC suggests focusing the lights on the traffic place of the work area nearby. JMC also plans to position additional outside lighting so that will ensure it will not obstruct with the amenity of neighbours place. All external lighting planned will be placed in unity with the Malaysia Standard (1999). Dust Airport construction activities may cause dust during ground trouble in involved area. However, this is not expected to be happen or a concern during the working phase of the construction, as exterior areas will be impermeable, and restricted dust is expected to be generated by strict control. Thus, public worries raised the issue of dust from the project. JMC has promised to minimize the dust by put in work the standard dust control measurement such as wind fencing, hydro-mulching and spraying water. Noise Another aspects need to be consider by JMC is noise levels that will increases during the construction of the new airport at the expected area. Besides that, heavy earthmoving tools, trucking of spoil and dewatering, will have the possible to generate high volume of noise during the new airport construction. Increased of noise will also occur by the trucks and other equipment related such as forklifts during operation of the project. However, public concerns of these issues have been raised especially about the increased noise volume from equipment and trucks used. JMC plan that all equipment will be maintained in good working condition and with the standard noise mufflers will be used to ensure excessive noise will not be generated. Furthermore, airport construction activities will be only occur during the working day, and all the trucks will only be enter and leave the involved area between 6.10am and 6.10pm during operations time. JMC has also promised to conduct the ambient noise monitoring system for every 3 months time during working phase, and the annually monitoring after normal operations originated. Flora and Fauna Flora The location is largely cleared of shrubbery. However, JMC suggest clearing the residual remainder plant life on the 28ha area, with remainder shrubbery being preserved on the planned perimeter and non development place. The parts of the area will be widely re-vegetated with suitable local species to give a visual and resonance barrier of the project. JMC also states that the project area has been acknowledged by MDP as a no priority place and completely under the MDP Master Plan 2008 Priority43 and No Priority place will not issue to further assessment needed. The project area, Sepang Oil Palm plantation and the adjacent vegetation has also been included into a Farm Forever area due its flora and fauna diversity importance. Farm Forever is a Malaysia Government idea and identifies regionally important farmland to be reserved and confined forever. However, the public concerns have been again point out about the effects of fluoride emissions on the shrubbery and the probability of los s of the Farm Forever area. The effects of fluoride emissions are taken to action in the part Emissions. JMC has also stated that Farm Forever is a Negeri Sembilan State based development instrument that is not steady with the Malaysia Master Planning process Fauna There a number of fauna surveys have been done by DOE of Malaysia on Sepang land. DOE has formally recorded 159 species of vertebrates living organisms, but with only a fairly small amount occurring in the project area. Besides that, a number of scheduled endangered species may be occurring on the area. JMC also states that prior to any clearing is work on, JMC will responsible to conduct a review to position any related species, and remove them from the area in concurrence with WWF principle. According to EPBC Act 1999 JMC would need to attain a part 15 permit to relocate the listed species in any Commonwealth land countries. Air Emissions Airport project expected to emit various sparkling pollutants into the location of the atmosphere. Those pollutants stated include oxides of Nitrogen (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOC), oxides of Carbon (COx) oxides of Sulphur (SOx), Hydrogen Fluoride (HF), and Hydrochloric Acid (HCl). Normally emissions are created primarily by the placing phase of airport project working. Health Impacts Acidic gases from new airport project expecting to correlate with varies aspect of the health impacts to the society. The health impacts effects include the problem of itchy eyes and particularly affecting asthmatics, respiratory sensitivity. Furthermore, gaseous emissions also could be mostly harmful to the community with already facing respiratory problems before. Besides that, the main focus for health problems are about the existing development project in the Sepang area have been point out in the previous year. The Sepang Primary School were closed in 1998, after the teachers and students of that school complained of eye, throat, nose and nose bleeds, burnt lips and skin irritations problems. As a results the Ministry of Health of Malaysia run the investigations to study at the emissions from the close development project and farm process. The problems caused by high volume of poisonous emissions, such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrogen fluoride were absorb in the area air, however due to circumstances there were no conclusion was strained on the cause of the contaminants in Sepang. Nonetheless, the local Hospital incinerator was closed and the school nearby was later relocated to suitable place in Sepang. JMC reported that all emissions need to be within the stated strategy as revealed by the modelling of the plan. JMC also explain that there was no exact proven that the direct facts to relation the project emissions to the health of residents who complaints at Sepang Primary School. Though, there have been many reports of difficult health trouble around active farming projects in Sepang. The reported health problems also could be source by short period events when the emissions have over the guideline volume stated. JMC has given a health risk measurement from the Department of Chemical of Malaysia. Tha t measurement is based on the backdrop volume of air ambient at Negeri Sembilan, which is 4-7km from the new Sepang airport. Additionally, Hazard Index (HI) was designed based on the amount of Health Quotient (HQ) of each pollutant factor. Besides that, the HI has been used to decide the risk of growing property of diverse pollutants factor. Besides that, the compliance of the Government of Malaysia has written remarks on the situation of health impacts commencing the Health Department of Malaysia (HDoM). However, the HDoM explain that the stated level of substances can all effects the respiratory system and give the high impact and certainly can effects the health and may be cumulative in given system. The HDoM also explain that the measured HI of 0.6 for the airport project, 2.08 in the collective impact of JMCs project plan, and the present setting assess would not be insignificant, as the pollutants factor in issue are respiratory system irritants on health. The HDoM proved changes in respiratory morbidity, together with hospital registration, mostly for asthmatics case, are likely at verdict standards of the given substances and are believed to have a probable impact of the place as expected. In addition, HDoM describe in the condotion that cannot be complete in factor on vitality impacts with no added in turn given . In response to the HDoM remarks, JMC hired Cemerlang Associates Pty Ltd to testimony on supplementary in sequence and explanation concerning health risk evaluation. Besides that, the testimony explains that when using HQ and HIis ordinary preparation, and is a conventional method that has a potential to overvalue the threat, and if the HQ value is bigger than 1 it should be research further. JMC also query some portion of the data used by HDoM to draw its report, and explain that the particular statistics used in Department of Chemical of Malaysia research are imitative from the maximum setting subsistence which exist on diverse term. Though, as prominent exceeding, this study is mainly imitative from in sequence from Negeri Sembilan, rather than the new airport area. The DoE Airport Licensing Policy (2002) was run to point the civic worries about the health impacts from the emissions and the existing farm industries area. Furthermore, it describe: It is obvious since the mass of proof over some years that contact to emissions of acid gas (mainly HCl, with some aid from HF) have source verifiable of unpleasant health of the effects, above all respiratory sensitivity and itchy eyes. The policy document describes the variety of factors take into consideration to determine ambient quality standards of air for needed acid gases omitted, and suggested procedure for load emissions to point them. An additional public worries have been point out that there are at present health problems that due to the gas emissions happen from the existing projects and industries, and that production of new project will give and additional to the pollutant caused. The active contaminant freight will be accepted to drop when the DoE project policy on dropping the emission s is completely put in work. Management, Monitoring and Compliance Relating to New Airport Project A vital element in shaping the adequacy of a plan is the capability to forecast and administer the impacts with buoyancy. The administration of the plan requires occurring in mutually the production and functioning stage. Throughout the construction stage of this plan, criterion construction management to be estimated to be able to sufficiently point out all kind impacts on the environmental, as those effects can be estimated with buoyancy. Nonetheless, the effective stage is much more difficult as proved by the DoE Airport Policy (2002) which can be found a variety of insignificant in the regulation and monitoring of the works of other Sepang farm works. Besides that, there are still uncertainties on the working side of this plan mainly with consider to the new accumulation equilibrium method for ensuring the satisfactory volume of the emissions that omitted by the project. These suspicions are over value by the detail that the foundation and description of inputs to the procedure h ave not yet been concluded. A numeral of community submissions have point out worries about whether the plan facility can be administered with the necessary degree of severity. The DoE Airport Licensing Policy (2002) focuses that the fact in a sound conformity system can be complicated to manage even for a government department with skill and possessions to manage all industrial facilities in the country. The DoE Airport Licensing Policy (2002) has planned new approach of amendable and monitoring observance. This has raises the regulatory problems for DoE and it also may need to take some time ahead of it acquires the knowledge and sympathetic of the manufacturing processes to be convinced that it will attain ongoing fulfilment. An importance adaptive of a management method will almost positively be necessary in attaining in progress observance given the reservations concerned. JMC have explained that there are sufficient authoritarian systems in place to administer the airport faci lity required. It explains that this only can be done throughout the requests of the Airports Act 1996, and via hire activities with Negeri Sembilan. Furthermore, guideline through Government legislation is commonly required for developed facilities like the airport project. Suitable knowledge and needs to legalize manufacturing facilities commonly include the stop work area, the capability to carry out random survey and test on the emissions omitted, and a perceptive of substance and engineering procedure when developing and to evaluate a bunch balance methods. The plan is to control the airport in Sepang is to some extent diverse from existing developments of the commercial airport, and current new authoritarian problems for the Department of Transport. Negeri Sembilan state has also assured that it can control the tender through leasing engagements. Conversely the guideline of such performance through renting with the private institution presents the challenges. Negeri Sembilan s tate has also marks the likelihood of astringent DoE to point the weakness of authoritarian experience in commerce with industrialized facilities that exist. In other hand, Negeri Sembilan state itself is not based to the same parliamentary requirements as own government, with the respect to the public precision and responsibility. Deparmental Summary on the Airport Project Following is the outline of the Departmental proposal point in above: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The traffic alternative situation 1 wills consequence in a imperfect effects on community areas provided that the trucks will not use the western part of Jalan Utara. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Standard supervision that measures can point the environmental effects of improvement and providing the services such as lighting, water, power and sewage. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The Department of the Environment of Malaysia need to develop the Airport Licensing Policy 2002 to point the difficult environmental effects of existing and future projects, and the Negeri Sembilan state claims that the plan is contradictory with the planning policies planned. Furthermore, given such factors with the public worries about the plan, the procedural researches given to date are not measured sufficient to address probable effects. The matter of other fatalities of amenity, like house standards is a issue of consideration for the Minister for Transport. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Standard administration method can point the environmental effects from the dust. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Standard administration method can point the environmental effects from noise. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Standard administration method can point the environmental effects that may happen from changes on the hydrology system. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ No effects should happen to Sepang if the groundwater and shell water flows left from the area. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ No studies were run on the area currently to assess the value of the remainder shrubbery, or their uses by the listed endangered species are. Consequently even if the area is despoiled, no remarks can be haggard by the Department of environment on the significance of the area for listed endangered species. JMC has not planned any alleviation method other then the translocation. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Although a summary can be pinched that it is probable to boundary acid gas emitted by the choosing meticulous types of material, JMC has not been established that it should be capable to admittance that material, or reporting detail on the essential wants of the chemical masterpiece of the material to meet the needed objective. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ JMC explain that the plan should meets the safety desires of Air Services, and the required stack height of material to meets the guidelines. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ JMC has working with the modelling on air emissions omitted using the best accessible in sequence. Nonetheless no data of the ambient air quality on the relevant pollutants was accessible for the planned airport area. Given the inefficiency pointed, the Department is not really pleased that the in sequence given to day is adequately thorough to wrap up that the modelling pointed air quality worries. Therefore the Department will not be secure that the plan will not conclude in difficult health from the impacts, if only as of the hesitation about the active pollutant load and the speed with which existing projects will reduce their emissions that omitted by the industries. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Standard organization method can point the impacts of the environmental from the stench. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The plan will require with a greater authoritarian participation than usual airport developments. Dictatorial employees with suitable expertise related to airport operations and also with the capability to interfere in those important operations, if needed, will be necessary in given that assurance that an adaptive organization method can consequence in a sound observance system. The sufficiency of the active authoritarian powers based from the Airports Act 1996, and also the proficiency of the Department of Transport to control such actions, is a issue for the Minister of Transport to consider when they planned on the adequacy of the suggestion. Conclusion This project plan has point out important on public worries through the community review term. The Department also remarks that the technologies needed for the facility that have not been formerly used in Negeri Sembilan; that the key fundamentals of the plan like the foundation and description of material need to be used in the project and are yet to be dogged; and the planned method to ascertain and observe observance have not been fully take into consideration. These circumstances could be able to settle throughout an adaptive administration method to guideline, whereby clear of the outcomes and also the aims can be set and administration approaches attuned over the time on the foundation of practice. This method needs a close operational association between controller and advocate with the capability for the controller to arbitrate, rapidly if essential, if the required outputs are not being attained. A sufficient audit or supervision role is necessary for thriving adaptive administration. Despite the fact that Negeri Sembilan state and JMC are very confident that the projected facility ought not unfavourably effects on the atmosphere and that an sufficient authoritarian system is in place throughout the needs of the Airports Act, still it is uncertain to the Department, besides that, guideline through rental schedule, would be adequately pro-active to point the potential failures to be achieve and desired objectives. Furthermore, given the community worries about the suggestion, such fear is improbable to give ease to local people. However, the Department need to supports the suggestion by Negeri Sembilan state to deal with DoE to point out they require of authoritarian practice in dealing with the industrialized facilities such as projects involved. Nonetheless, such astringent would need to be included in a clear and officially workable instrument for DoE so that they can take suitable authoritarian achievement should it be necessary. The Department should consider that the suggestion should only carry on if numerals of reservations are confirmed to the contentment of the Malaysia Government; i. A scrupulous authoritarian system is in position to certify that the suggestion meets the principles set out in the evaluation certification equipped by the supporter and that immediate and efficient counteractive act will be occupied should that establish not to be the main case; ii. The promoter should reveal that it will have to acce
Socioeconomic Determinants Of Health
Socioeconomic Determinants Of Health 1.1 Explain the effects of socioeconomic influences on health Recent evidence suggests that the health of the population in the United Kingdom continues to improve. However, despite this many people will experience an inequality in terms of their health and the chance of living in good health is unequally distributed within society (House of Common Health Committee 2009). Socio-economic status is one of the most important determinants of health and the link between this and health is widely accepted (NPHS 2004). Differences in health by social class was examined by the Black Report (1980), which investigated the problem of health inequalities in the UK and found that people of lower economic status were far more likely to experience ill-health and premature death than those of higher socio-economic status. The report concluded that despite the improvement in the overall health of the population, the improvement had not been equal across the social classes and that the health gap between lower and higher social classes was widening. This was supported by the Health Divide (1987) and the Acheson Report (1998), which mirrored the findings of the Black Report. Report findings suggested there was a direct correlation between socio-economic class and health and the likelihood of developing health problems such as coronary heart disease, strokes, lung cancer and respiratory diseases was far higher in the lower social classes. The aim of this essay is to discuss the unequal distribution of health within society; this will be achieved through the examination of the incidence of coronary heart disease within a lower socio-economic group. This subject has been chosen because it is of particular relevance within some of the most deprived areas of Wales and accounts for a large proportion of deaths. A further aim of the essay will be to identify and discuss the factors that influence health across a persons lifespan. Psycho-social influences on health will be discussed along with the direct and indirect influence they have on the health of a person. An analysis of pertinent social policy will be provided together with the relevant public health policies that have been developed to tackle the problem of health inequalities. Finally the role of the nurse and the multi-disciplinary team in improving health inequalities will be considered. In order to achieve these aims it is important to fully understand what is m eant by health and the term health inequality. The Biomedical model defines health as the absence of disease and focuses on the eradication of disease and illness through diagnosis and effective treatment. The state of health is determined by assessing whether or not a disease is present and is driven by the belief that cures for diseases need to be found in order for people to be considered healthy (Bury 2005). Despite often being considered to present a negative view of health it is the most prevalent model used in Western society. When people are feeling unwell it is the medical professions opinion that is sought and the primary concern of the is the treatment of disease and prevention of illness. Symptoms of illness are considered to have an underlying pathology in this model and this pathology can, although not always successfully be treated or restored thus leading to re-instated health (Morrison and Bennet 2009). However this model fails to recognise other factors that influence health. In contrast the social model of health defines health and illness from an individuals perspective and their functioning in society. Rather than merely considering biological or physiological changes, it regards disease as being a result of the interaction of biological, psychological and social conditions (Brannon and Feist 2007). It emphasises that changes can be made in both the individuals lifestyle and in wider society in order to improve health. In comparison with the World Health Organisations definition, health should not be viewed merely in terms of the presence or absence of disease but consideration must be given to the overall state of a persons physical, social and mental well-being (WHO 1948). The social model of health considers other important influences that impact on the individuals health and recognises that health does not only result from biological and genetic processes but that it is a state of positive well-being influenced by the wider social and economic cond itions in which we live (Farrell et al 2008). Consideration of other factors that influence and determine health allows for a better understanding of why some people have better health than others. It also provides a broader understanding of the determinants of health, which in turn allows for identification of the factors which influence health either in individuals or within particular groups in society and goes some way to explaining why inequalities in health persist. Health inequality was highlighted by the publication of the Black Report in 1980, showing that there was a direct correlation between socioeconomic status and health (Bartley 2004). It refers to the unequal distribution of health between social groups that is distinguished by the unequal structures of which the group is a part (Graham 2007). Health inequalities are random, perceived to be unfair and rather than being a result of biological processes are socially produced (Whithead and Dalgren 2006), generated by the social conditions in which people live (Farrell et al 2008) and refers to the systematic differences in the health of groups that occupy unequal positions in society (Graham 2007) and refer to a particular type of difference in health whereby disadvantaged groups experience worse health and greater risks to their health than less disadvantaged groups (Braveman 2006). Health inequalities are avoidable but are determined by the political, social and economic influences on the conditions in which people live, grow and work (CSDH 2008). They are a result of a wide range of complex influences and those people who are the most socio-economically deprived are the most likely to suffer ill health in all stages of life and premature death (Townsend Davidson 1988). An example of this can be seen in the incidence of coronary heart disease and the contributing factors which influence this disease particularly amongst those within the population who are the most socioeconomically deprived. Coronary heart disease (CHD) is a disease of the blood vessels supplying the heart. Coronary arteries become narrowed or blocked with deposits of fatty materials or cholesterol (atheroma), thus reducing the blood supply to the heart. This deprives the heart of oxygen, causes angina, arrhythmia and can lead to coronary thrombosis, heart failure, myocardial infarction and/or sudden death (National Assembly for Wales 2001). Despite it being a largely preventable illness and leading cause of death in the UK, it still accounts for over 6000 deaths per year in Wales (NPHS 2006). Although the incidence has been falling over the past few decades, figures show that Wales still has a higher incidence of the disease than England and that in areas of high deprivation such as the South Wales valleys the incidence of CHD is at least a third higher than in more affluent areas (Cardiac Disease NSF for Wales 2009). Mortality rates for CHD show that Wales has a higher rate than the UK average and that areas within Wales with the highest rates are mainly in the South Wales valleys, with Blaenau Gwent and Merthyr Tydfil having rates significantly higher than the national average (NPHS 2006). Some of this may be linked to access to services, in particular angiograph and revascularisation. While the hospital admission rates for coronary heart disease is higher than the national average in areas of low socioeconomic status such as Blaenau Gwent and Merthyr Tydfil, admissions for angiography and revascularisation is lower among these areas (NPHS 2006). There are many factors that contribute to the incidence of CHD, some of which cannot be changed such as increasing age and genetic disposition. However many social influences such as tobacco use, diet, physical activity, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, use of alcohol and drugs, and stress which contribute to the disease can be modified. Incidence of CHD can also be linked to poverty, low educational status and poor mental health (depression) (WHO 2006b). Exposure to unequal health risks begins before conception and continues through all development stages through to adulthood and leaves the individual vulnerable to a range of disease that includes CHD. (Graham 2004). Environmental conditions such as work environment, income and housing in adulthood contribute to health inequalities and have as much of an impact in determining future health and premature death childhood disadvantage (Kuh et al 2003). Increased behavioural risks in adulthood contribute to CHD and as the incidenc e increases in the lower socioeconomic groups so do the associated risk factors. Those living in deprived areas are far more likely to smoke, eat a poor diet and take part in less than the recommended amount of physical exercise. These behaviours also increase the risk of high blood pressure, high cholesterol and stress, which are associated with the development of CHD (NPHS 2004) Tobacco use is a contributory factor in the development of CHD and the prevalence of smoking among the lowest socioeconomic groups in the UK is approximately 45% of men and 33% of women in the highest social class being smokers compared to 15% and 14% respectively in the lowest social class (Richardson and Crosier). In Wales is estimated that 17% of deaths from heart disease can be attributed to smoking (Cardiac Disease NSF for Wales 2009). Whilst the prevalence of smoking continues to decrease it is still a major problem, the 2008-09 Welsh Health Survey showed that 25% of men and 23% of women were smokers. However in areas with low socio economic status and high deprivation such as Blaenau Gwent and Merthyr Tydfil the number of people who smoked was higher with the percentage of smokers being 30% and 31% respectively (Welsh Health Survey 2007-08). Another contributory factor in the development of CHD is nutrition; diet plays an important role in the development of heart disease with the consumption of fat being linked to coronary heart disease and high salt intake being linked to high blood pressure which is a contributory factor to CHD. While eating 5 or more portions of fruit and vegetables a day can reduce the risk. Despite this intake of fats and salt is higher in Wales than is recommended (Cardiac Disease National Service Framework) and the number of people who consume the recommended amount of fruit and vegetables is only 36%. As with tobacco use these figures decreases in areas of low economic status; with 30% in Merthyr Tydfil and only 28% in Blaenau Gwent consuming the recommended daily amounts. (Welsh Health Survey 2007-08). As well as having a high intake of fats and salt people in low socio-economic groups are also far more likely to consume a diet with poor nutritional value which can result in individuals becoming overweight or obese. The highest proportions of people who are overweight or obese are again in areas of low socioeconomic status. As with other risk factors areas such as Blaenau Gwent and Merthyr Tydfil the number of people who are overweight living in these areas is above the national average for Wales (NPHS 2006). While the national average was reported as being 54.1% in 2006 (NPHS2006), the more recent Welsh Health Survey 2007-08 shows that this figure has increased to 57%, with Blaenau Gwent and Merthyr Tydfil being above the average with it being reported that 64% and 59% respectively being overweight or obese in these areas. Physical activity can contribute to an improvement in physical and psychological quality of life, whereas physical inactivity is a risk factor associated with coronary heart disease and high blood pressure (DoH 1993). The recommended guideline for exercise is 30 minutes of moderate intensity 5 days per week, however only 29% of the Welsh population reported that they achieved this. In areas of low socioeconomic status Blaenau Gwent and Torfaen reported lower than average figures, however Merthyr Tydfil was above the Welsh average. Physical inactivity in the female population is lower than that of males and this trend appears at an early age (NPHS 2006). Other factors such as high blood pressure, high levels of cholesterol, use of alcohol and drugs and stress all contribute to CHD and can be a result of factors such as poor diet, smoking and reduced levels of physical activity. While some individuals may be genetically predisposed to developing CHD for others personal will have a direct bearing on their future health. Individual personality and how much control they feel they have over their own health influence the choices made. Those people who belief they control outcomes (internal locus of control) are far more likely to be able to modify their behaviour to improve future health. Whereas those who beliefs health outcomes are firmly controlled by powerful others (external locus of control) are more likely to continue risk taking behaviour (Lefcourt 1982). Nurses can make an invaluable contribution to the reduction of health inequalities through their ability to work with the public to influence behaviour change within the scope of health promotion work. Health promotion allows the nurse opportunity to target vulnerable populations, to promote health in a positive way, to give clients the health information that allows them to make informed decisions about their health and prevention of illness, enhancing the individuals ability to play a key role in their own health (Webster and Finch 2002 in Scriven 2005).and is an area in which the nurse or healthcare professional plays a key role (WHO 1989). Health promotion work although being a key role for nurses does not lie solely within the domain of health and to achieve the ultimate aim of tackling inequalities there needs to be partnership work with a range of healthcare professionals such as health visitors and dieticians as well as other professionals working in related fields such as sm oking cessation. In order for it to be completely successful a multi-disciplinary approach is advocated with the need to tackle other health determinants simultaneously being paramount (RCN 2007). Health inequalities are often a consequence of lifestyle choices and behaviours, with development of illness and disease is the result of many factors. In order to make changes to the most socioeconomically deprived people in society, work needs to be focused on behaviour change and lifestyle choices (Welsh Assembly Government 2002). Publication of reports such as the Black Report, Health Divide and Acheson Report highlighted the severity of the problems facing the health of society and it is from here that government interventions and public health policies are produced. Publication of the Black Report highlighted the inequalities in health that were present in UK society. The report concluded that health was directly linked to social class and the chance of living a healthy life decreased in lower social classes. It showed that while the health service could play a part in reducing health inequalities measures to reduce socioeconomic differences in income, environment, poor housing, low education standards and unemployment should have a greater importance. It contained 37 recommendations concerned with improving the life of the poorest members of society, particularly children and those with disabilities (Acheson 1998). Recommendations focused on two main areas. It proposed the government should adopt a policy aimed at reducing child poverty in the UK and more money should be spent on health education and the prevention of illness (Townsend Davidson1988). However government at the time criticised the report, arguing that it did not explain health i nequalities and that increased expenditure on the health service would not make a difference to standards of health. Despite this the report was influential in public health debates and research and influenced the decision by the WHOs European region to agree a common health strategy in 1985 (Acheson 1998). Further reports in 1987 (The Health Divide) and 1998 (Acheson report) drew similar conclusions as the Black Report. The Health Divide argued that socio economic circumstances where a major factor in health inequalities and subsequent health and that the gap between health standards and social class had increased since the publication of the Black Report (Whitehead 1987). The 1997 new Labour government set up an inquiry into health inequalities, signalling that the alleviation of inequalities in health was of primary importance. (Marmot 2004).The result of this inquiry was the publication of the Acheson Report, which found that inequalities in health persisted and mirrored the findings of both the Black report and the Health Divide. It concluded that in order to improve health the gap between rich and poor must be reduced and that health inequalities begin before birth. It recommended that high priority should be given to policies aimed at improving health and reducing inequalities in health particularly in respect of children, women of child bearing age and expectant mothers and health policies that have a direct or indirect effect of health should be evaluated. Additionally the report made 37 further recommendations directed across all governmental departments and called for development of policies that sought to reduce inequalities in health (Acheson 1998). In the context of Wales, the Welsh Assembly Government has publicised a number of policies and documents seeking to address the issues of health inequalities. In 1998 Better Health; Better Wales highlighted and described health inequalities which exist in Wales and in 2001 it set out its long term plan to improve the nations health. Improving Health for Wales: a Plan for the NHS with its Partners (2001) set the scene for the NHS over a ten year period. Its main objectives were to make further improvements in health maintenance, provide a significant contribution to health improvements in the populations health and to tackle health inequalities. The Well-being in Wales consultation document in 2002 emphasised that health was the responsibility of everyone not only of the government. This idea of a shared responsibility was reinforced in the 2003 Review of Health and Social Care in Wales, which showed long-term demand for health and social care was unsustainable and there needed to be a greater emphasis on the prevention of ill health and individuals should be held responsible for their own health. This led to the development of Health Challenge Wales, which signposts members of the public to information and activities to improve their own health. In 2005 publication of Designed for Life, a 10 year commitment of creating world class health and social care in Wales built on the work which had been undertaken in 2001. One Wales (2007) upholds the Assembly Governments commitment to improving health and well-being in particular the poorest, most vulnerable members of society. The status of the health of the population varies considerably and the correlation between socioeconomic status and health has been proven in various reports. Health problems such as CHD that are more prevalent in low socioeconomic groups are further exacerbated by associated risk factors that are more prevalent in these groups. Various reports have highlighted these inequalities and concluded that despite being avoidable, inequalities in health exist and are a result of political, social and economic influences. The Welsh Assembly Government in its strategies has recognised the unsustainability of long term health and social care and that there is a need for individuals to take responsibility for their own health. Health promotion work undertaken by nurses is a key role in promoting health and providing the public with information that allows them to make positive lifestyle choices and change behaviour to improve future health. While this is an important area, health inequalities wi ll not be eradicated within the domain of health; it is vitally important that all government departments develop policies that aim to tackle the risk factors.
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